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Before we discuss kaizen real life implementation case studies let’s first understand what kaizen is exactly and how it helps companies in beating up competition in the market and coming on top like they never imagined before.

According to experts kaizen means the process of bringing non- stop improvements in the organizations. Kaizen is very flexible and its elements can be allocated easily in management, services, manufacturing and engineering. If its elements are implemented accurately then it will help a company utilize its limited resources to the maximum in order to attain optimum profit. It also makes it possible for the companies to eliminate waste and eradicate unnecessary work. It teaches the employees to show their best of capabilities and attain rewards in return. The kaizen basically consists of numerous scientific approaches which work really well in all sorts of organizations whether it is a big multinational like Toyota or a small company of two rooms only.

Mentioned below are examples of some of the companies that applied kaizen principles and experienced massive success shortly. We will explain you how good kaizen is by giving examples of three companies:

Canon is a Japanese company that decided to implement kaizen in order to make place in international market and expand the horizons of their operation to many countries that they had stepped into yet. To attain this, Canon made use of matrix management system on various small activities with the purpose of reducing waste and motivating the workforce to work at optimum level. With time they increased the number of techniques they were applying and experienced great growth. For instance, with the help of kaizen applications those were applied in production system, production assurance, personal training and quality assurance the entire growth in monthly productivity they witnessed was equal to 3%.

Fidelity investments is another company that successfully used kaizen applications and faced success. The company offers a large number of financial services, in order to bring more improvements in their system the company the CEO of the company, Johnson tough it would be a great idea to introduce Kaizen. To do this he made several small groups each representing a different business unit. Employees were then trained and motivated to utlitize their resources to the maximum. The employees consisting of leadership qualities were given encouragement so that they can take up the responsibility of achieving the goals. The performance overall was analysed on quarterly and monthly basis and then improvements were introduced accordingly. Gradually as changes were brought in the company it was seen that profitability also increased along the side.

Gold Seal Engineering Products is an automotive company in India that exports to many countries of the world. The company with the aim to cut the production time and cost by 33% implemented the kaizen’s principles of 5s. In the first six months it was seen that production outcome increased by 45% while the production time reduced by 25%, the wastage was minimized by 75% and machine down time was brought down from 89% to 60%.

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Source by Sam Miller

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Did you know that there are repossessed car auctions online, where you can find extremely cheap cars in a very good condition?

Buying a car from a government auction can help you save thousands of dollars. In fact, it’s not uncommon to find cars up to 95% off their regular price. Every day, thousands of vehicles like SUV’s, motorcycles, MPV’s, trucks and RV’s get seized by banks or government agencies. It costs a lot of money to the government to store these vehicles and this is the reason why they reduce the price so much in order to sell the cars as quickly as possible.

But, how do these automobiles end up in an auction?

Many times these automobiles were bought by individuals through bank financing loans, which they failed to pay off. So, the banks repossessed them to minimize their losses. Other times, these vehicles get confiscated from people who have committed crimes or any form of fraud.

So, how can you find your dream car in an auction?

The problem with these auctions is that they are not usually widely publicized. They simply come and go and you don’t even know that they exist. One solution to this problem is to start looking for auction listings in your local newspaper.

However, if these classified ads are inside a widely read newspaper, many people will see it and you may end up facing a lot of competition. Also, if there are many bidders the price of the vehicle will increase.

The best way to locate a car auction is to visit an online database. There, you can start your search by brand like Honda, BMW, Ford, Toyota, Audi and so on, by type such van, sedan, mini-trucks and of course by location and price.

This way you will be able to find your dream vehicle as fast as possible and from the comfort of your own home. These databases ask you for a small fee, but the good news is that they let you conduct as many searches as you wish.

You can use these websites to locate the vehicle, but before you commit to buying it, you need to make sure that it’s in a good condition. Also, you need to decide ahead of time how much money you are willing to spend. If you are the highest bidder, the auctioneer will expect you to pay for the full amount. However in most cases, they do accept credit cards and personal checks.

If you see people who change cars all the time without being millionaires, online repossessed vehicle auctions are probably the answer. Many times you can find a vehicle with only 1-2 thousand dollars, even though its retail price is $20,000.

Now pay close attention here!

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Source by David M. Jacobs

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The fourth generation Nissan 300zx hit the U.S. market in 1990! Since its nationwide drop, car enthusiasts have been fascinated by this wondrous machine. Not only has it gained the attention of sport car drivers all over the world, but it has also garnished more awards than most cars have ever dreamed of seeing. In fact, speaking of cars dreaming…the 300ZX should definitely have been featured in The Fast and The Furious Series, as the fastest car.

Topping out at 280 mph, the 300ZX holds the land speed record, awarded at the 1991 Bonneville Speed Trial. Imagine…that was without serious modifications! The Z32 could reach 60 mph, easily in just under 6 seconds! The Fairlady Z easily made the Chevy Corvette, Mitsubishi 3000GT, Mazda RX-7, Dodge Viper, Toyota Supra and Porsche 968 shutter in fear at the thought of racing against it. But racing awards are not the only titles that the 300ZX holds under its hood.

In 1990, the first year of the fourth generation, Motor Trend named the 300ZX “The Import Car of the Year” and “One of the Top Ten Performance Cars”. Further, the Z32 was placed on Automobile Magazine’s “All-Star” list, and honored with “Design of the Year” by the same forum. That same year, Road & Track and Car and Driver called the 300ZX “One of the Ten Best Cars in the World”.

You are probably reading this thinking….whatever. Many cars gain these distinctions in their first year, and then quickly lose their popularity and fan base. While this is true for many vehicles, it did not, nor does it now, apply to the Fairlady Z.

For seven straight years, from 1990-1996, Car and Driver awarded the 300ZX “One of the Ten Best Cars”, and for five years, from 1990-1994, it was on Automobile Magazine’s “All-Star” list! The reputation of the Z32 is virtually unheard-of!

Even after Nissan stopped importing the Fairlady Z to the United States, it continued to win awards. Automobile Magazine named it one of the coolest cars of all time in 2004, and in 2006, gave it the distinction of being included in lists like, “20 of the Greatest Cars of the Past 20 Years”, and “25 Most Beautiful Cars in History”.

The question remains, will the 300ZX continue to win awards? The answer is a resounding, YES! People are modifying and accessorizing the Z32, so that it will continue to be faster, sleeker and more appealing. Modified suspensions, air intakes and brake kits [http://modified300zx.com/index.php?cPath=4_85] all contribute to the ZX continuing to excel at races and drifting challenges.

Finding aftermarket parts and accessories [http://www.modified300zx.com/] has become a relatively easy task, with the advent of eCommerce sites that offer every possible thing for every possible vehicle. However, when I buy aftermarket parts and accessories, I want to buy them from someone who loves and respects the Fairlady Z as much as I do! That place, in my opinion is, without a doubt is Modified 300ZX [http://www.modified300zx.com/].

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Source by Jennifer Lassiter

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When it comes to streamlining and maximizing value of production in a company, no other system would beat kaizen. Kaizen is a quality strategy or scheme adopted and implemented by companies that are adopting measures for lean manufacturing, which is known as a process of minimizing production costs to boost overall valuation of a company. Kaizen was devised and introduced by Japanese car making giant Toyota Production System and was shared to all major firms in operations worldwide. Through the years both minor and major businesses have been adopting and implementing Kaizen in efforts to improve profitability and generate costs.

Kaizen is a Japanese word that literally means ‘continuous improvement’. Principally, the idea behind the concept is that small and relatively negligible improvements and changes in business operations would lead to major improvements to bolster productivity, efficiency and profitability in the long run. Because Kaizen is a systematic process, it is logical that its implementation is ruled and governed by several practical and logical metrics. Hence, every company aiming to adopt Kaizen needs to familiarize first with several important and basic Kaizen metrics.

Basic Kaizen metrics is often led by overall duration of production or operational cycles. By this, a company evaluating itself using Kaizen metrics as a guide determines the overall efficiency of operations. By looking at the duration employees complete a product or process, the management can easily tell whether there is efficiency in production. Manufacturers and firms know that productivity is boosted when disturbance and wasteful practices and objects are eliminated from the workplace. Time factors also deal with the duration of defect correction and processing.

Also included in the Kaizen metrics is the flow of tasks. In manufacturing operations and business organizations, it is important that all employees are working as a team. Competition with each other is important in boosting productivity, but overall synergies and cooperation to come up to good results and increased and efficient production is also as important. All employees from the least in the ranks, to the middlemen, to managers and executives must work hand in hand to bolster production and smoothen flow of job tasks.

In terms of troubleshooting and resolving problems and disruptions during operations, it is important that companies implement the system of ‘Five Whys’, which is again identified with Kaizen. Companies adopting Kaizen must answer the following questions when dealing with operational problems:

– Why the equipment did ceased working?

– Why was an overload a problem?

– Why was the machine not lubricated sufficiently?

– Why was the equipment not working efficiently? And

– Why did the machine part worn out?

Part of implementing and observing the metrics of Kaizen is the follow up sessions. Follow ups serve as assessment and evaluation of whether improvements in operations are sustained. Part of the follow up activities is the routine performance measures to determine if employees and executives have all contributed productively to operations.

Kaizen metrics are as simple as that. On top of it all, it is important that companies note that lean manufacturing productivity measures come in cycles. Production would be continuously efficient if all personnel involved are disciplined to follow recommended efficient and productive processes.

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Source by Sam Miller

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Have you noticed how you see more older Honda Accords being driven than any other type of car? It’s a stretch to find a 1989 Chevy Monte Carlo or a 1992 Ford Taurus driving these days. However, Accords seem to have longevity. Blame it on their reliability and high resale value, as well as true driver loyalty to the Honda brand. You can’t kill these cars.

The Honda Accord has long been known for its trustworthiness, ever since 1976 when the model was born. The car has beat out the competitors (including Toyota Camry) with solid ratings across the board for safety, reliability, resale value, design and family friendliness.

Drivers who bought their Honda Accords in the 1980s find little reason to sell them, since the Accord lasts so long if properly maintained. After a few repairs and replacements (most occurring at the 100,000 mile mark), like timing belt, water pump and axles, owners have put as much as 300,000 miles (or more) on their Accords and continue to get great use from the reliable vehicle.

A Look at the Accord’s Best Years

The Accord is in its eighth generation currently. Some generations of the popular vehicle have lasted better than others, although there are Honda Accords on the road from all generations.

Fourth Generation

The Accords built between 1990 to 1993 were hearty, and we still see them out and about. This model bore a close resemblance to the Acura Legend, which gave it a more upscale feel for an Accord compared to previous generations. In 1993, the 10th anniversary of the SE model brought a special edition of the LX sedan with extra features.

Fifth Generation

Probably the most popular in terms of used cars today, the Honda Accords built between 1994 and 1997 still retain good resale value and are more reliable than your average 12 to 15 year old used car. This model got a facelift from the previous generation, with a wider body and a V6 engine introduced in 1995.

From New to Old

If you’ve owned a Honda Accord, you’re likely to buy another one for your next car. Accord owners appreciate the vehicle’s handling ability, and those that drive the coupe love the sportiness that still comes with great reliability and quality. Sedan drivers appreciate the roominess that allows for comfort for the whole family.

Looking to sell your Honda Accord?

Accords provide good resale value, with models from as far back as 1990 being worth at least $1200.

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Source by Jason S. Tustle

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The Grandtrek SJ6 snow tire from Dunlop is a specially designed snow tire for light SUVs, pickups, and 4x4s. This tire fits the 15 and 16 inch rims of smaller vehicles very well. It has certain upsides and downsides you should consider when deciding which snow tire to buy this winter.

Compared to the SJ5 model, the Dunlop Grandtrek SJ6 is better suited to smaller and lighter vehicles. These include Jeeps (Wrangler, Cherokee, Commander, Compass, Patriot, Liberty), Honda (Passport, Element, CR-V, Pilot, Ridgeline), Toyota (Highlander, 4Runner, FJ Cruiser, RAV4), Hyundai (Tucson, Santa Fe, Veracruz), Ford (Flex, Edge, Escape, Explorer, Ranger), Mazda (CX-7, CX-9), BMW X3, etc. If you have a larger vehicle such as a Chevrolet Suburban then you should consider the SJ5 instead.

Now that you’ve decided the SJ6 falls in your vehicle’s size range, what are the positive features associated with the Dunlop Grandtrek SJ6?

First, the tire has excellent snow grip, drainage of slush and water, and is resistant to hydroplaning. This comes from the wide tread openings and tread shape designed for heavy winter conditions. Drivers often report passing multiple cars stuck in the snow on the side of the road as they drive by on their SJ6’s.

Second, the tire has strong braking performance in the snow and wet. This comes from the soft compound and aggressive tread, which bites down rather than floating above like a standard all weather tire might. Wouldn’t you want the extra safety of short stopping distance in dangerous winter conditions?

Third, customer ratings are high for this tire — 8 out of 10! That’s a good vote of confidence in a competitive snow tire market.

Now for the downsides of the Dunlop Grandtrek SJ6. This isn’t the best specialty tire for hard ice. Some owners mention that they felt the Dunlop Graspic tires are better for driving on slick ice. For most temperatures down to 0 degrees F, these tires should work fine. In predominantly rainy conditions (no snow), all-weather tires perform much better and provide longer tread life, better handling, and a more responsive feel. Clearly its snow performance is what puts the Dunlop Grandtrek SJ6 at or near the top of the heap.

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Source by Dann Roberts

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There is a saying: “You have to dress to impress on your first date”. It is certainly true, but we all have to admit that for guys the most important thing on the first date should be their ride. Just picture this scene: you’re at her door in tuxedo with a bouquet of 25 roses (her favorites). She opens the door, takes you by the arm and you slowly walk her towards your Baby Blue color 1998 Toyota Corolla with multiple dings, scratches and a bumper sticker that says “Nirvana”. If she is a smart and beautiful girl she will fake faint right there on the spot or will bolt and run away like Usain Bolt. Women don’t really care that much about your attire, flowers or manners. Your ride on the opposite will speak volumes to them and in most cases will make them totally blind to everything else. Now picture another scene: you’re at her door with one hand holding your falling down pants and in your other hand a 24 ounce can of “Milwaukee’s Best” wrapped in a brown paper bag. She opens the door and since she is a smart girl she is about to fake faint or almost ready to bolt like Mr. Bolt but she peeks over your right shoulder and sees your 2010 Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder Convertible parked in her driveway. And because she is a smart and beautiful girl she takes you by the arm and walks you down to your car. The rest of the story is up to your imagination.

It’s very simple my friends – your future and your wife to be is determined by Your Ride. Cruel but true, that’s why Date My Ride website came up with a list of 2010 Top 10 Best Dating Cars for Guys. Rides are not listed in any particular order or sequence. Those are simply the Top 10 must haves.

1. 2010 Chevrolet Hurst/Camaro. This one is the perfect ride for the first date. The new 2010 Camaro will sure knock your date off her feet. Stylish body flow, aggressive grill, 20 inch rims (bling, bling) and 420-hp 6.2L V-8 powerful engine will absolutely close the deal on your first date. Plus this sweet ride is a huge ego booster – no girl will ever care of your looks or clothing when you are pulling into her driveway with this sweet new ride.
2. 2010 Rolls -Royce Ghost. This one right of the bat makes a statement – I am over 60, I am filthy rich, I could die pretty soon and leave you fighting with my heirs over the money. With ride like this one – 212.6 inches long, price tag of over $300K, 536-hp 6.6L V-12 engine you will attract the hottest gold diggers from all over the world. The news flash for gramps – no gold digger will care about your looks, jaw implants, hearing aids or Alzheimer’s when you are proudly drooling behind the steering wheel of this bad ass coffin!
3. 2010 Nissan GT-R. When chicks are going to see you in the ride such as 2010 Nissan GT-R two things will come to their minds – “Fast and Furious and Vin Diesel.” This ride will create an impression of you that you are as buff and tough like Mr. Diesel. Put few stripes or flames on the hood; throw in some monstrous speakers and this 485-hp 3.8L V-6 Turbo engine tow seater will become a love ride. No coed will ever say “No” to you when she sees you in this ride flying down the street or doing smoky wheelies. Plus you will be able to smoke every Civic or Corolla at the traffic light. The only bad news is that this ride isn’t cheap – $84K, so your part-time job at Chuck E Cheese’s won’t cut it.
4. 2010 Audi R8. Even James Bond- Agent 007 wouldn’t be ashamed to ride in this baby. 2010 Audi R8 should be every man’s dream. If this is your ride you can be well assured that Miley Cyrus would be fighting Sarah Palin about who gets to go out on the date with you. With this ride even if you are resembling George Costanza from Seinfeld – short, bold, no job, living with parents you absolutely will be dating the most gorgeous women! 525-hp 5.2L V-10 humming engine will make any kitty purr in this powerful ride.
5. 2011 Jaguar XJ – Series.You want to impress Desperate Housewives from LA, NY, NJ, and OC? Get this kitty cat – 510-hp 5.0L V-8 engines wouldn’t be bad for David Beckham either. The look of this car just says: “I am in it to win it” and “Of course I am a Gentleman”. Somehow this ride asks you to dress nicely so you become part of the car. And because of all that Euro/British hype ladies would be expecting you to be at the par with this car. Two words to describe this ride: “Gentlemen’s Choice”.
6. 2010 Ferrari California.The name says it all – “Ferrari California”. To have this ride you must a) live in LA, b) be one of those want to be A list or at least B list celebrities c) “have your dealer on a speed dial” and oh, almost forgot d) you must be skinny. If you meet all of the above this 460-hp 4.3L V-8 engine convertible is Your ride. Just keep in mind you will be attracting certain types of women with those common elements: a) she lives in LA, b) she is one of those want to be A list celebrities, c) “she will have her dealer on a speed dial” d) she will probably be a D size and oh, almost forgot e) she will be skinny.
7. 2010 Ford F – 250 Super Duty.Smell of beer, wood, gun powder, dogs and fish mixed with other women’s perfume that is the smell of a real man driving this Bad Boy! Who cares that his ride is bigger than his 1966 modular home sitting on stilts. A real woman needs a real man and real men drive real bad as trucks such as 385-hp 6.2L V-8 engine Ford F-250 Super Duty! And the best thing about this ride is that you can literally hoard loads of women in its bed.
8. 2010 Toyota Prius.You get this ride and every girl with “Green Peace” t-shirt will fall for you. Being “green” is fashionable these days. Even some actual A list Hollywood celebrities drive Priuses. But be forewarned that this 134-hp 1.8L engine bucket looking ride won’t score you any point with hot gold diggers, desperate housewives or girls from The Hills. Most likely you and your date will end up hugging the trees on a first date.
9. 2010 BMW M3 Convertible.This ride is an ultimate must have date car for guys. It is amazing how the sound of three simple letters Be-eM-double U will sweep your date of her feet. You won’t even need to buy any alcohol, just give her a ride in this 414-hp 4.0L V-8 convertible and she will feel absolutely drunk. Any man becomes a superhero when he drops those three simple letters to the woman….Be, eM, double U….
10. 2010 Mercedes -Benz CL65 AMG. No Top 10 car list is complete without the Benz. Women in all age groups, demographics and social levels will pay attention to you if you come to pick her up on a first date in this ride. We have to stress this again that you looks are not important if you are cruising down the street in this $200K plus, 604-hp 6.0L V-12 symbol of wealth. Get your date in a car, relax, adjust your hearing aid or pick piece of spinach from your braces and let this ride do its job.

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Source by Kevin Smithstein

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When I was working on my MBA, I took a very insightful class called Marketing Strategy that drilled the concept of the 3C’s and 4P’s into my brain. If you have not heard of this marketing concept, briefly reviewed, it is understanding your Customer and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of your Competition and your Company, then taking this knowledge and adjusting your Price, Product, Place of distribution and type of Promotion to maximize your sales and profitability.

When I started my own company, I sought to take this concept a step further and applying its principles to Outdoor Marketing.

Customer

Applying this principle to outdoor marketing requires different thought than developing a TV or radio spot then deciding on which stations to play it. For instance, you must understand where does your customers travel, shop, work, eat and enjoy life outside of the home? Moreover, what are their likes and dislikes? You must truly get to know your customers because this information will be crucial in your outdoor marketing efforts and specifically in determining exactly where to place your ads.

Competition

You are not the only one who wants your potential customers. Undoubtedly, you have competition. To effectively communicate to those customers, you will need to differentiate your company from your competition and focus on your strengths and on their weaknesses. Furthermore, be sure to expand your idea of competition. You not only have direct competitors (i.e. Ford dealership vs. Toyota dealership), but you also have indirect competitors (i.e. Ford dealership vs. Mass Transit). Broaden your horizon and give adequate thought as to their strengths and weaknesses.

Think like a consumer. If you understand your customers, you will know where to advertise to reach them and your competition may not. Don’t be afraid to directly compare your strengths to their weaknesses in your outdoor advertising. Make your competitors defend themselves. The business arena is not the place to play nice guy.

Company

First and foremost list what your company can do well and, more importantly, what it cannot. It is quite painful to admit that you do not excel in all areas of your business but it is better to understand it now and not misstep and let your customers down by promoting something that you can’t delivery on.

Once you have this list, can you effectively communicate what your company does utilizing outdoor media? Can you get across your primary focus and your main strengths? Can you make it simple enough? Focus on your top two strengths that intersect with the top wants of your target customers and place your ads where they frequent. Furthermore, depending on what you want to communicate, you will need to choose the appropriate outdoor media of which there are many.

Price

If your company cannot afford to advertise on traditional billboards, which can average $2,000 per month for a major highway billboard, then you should look into other forms of outdoor and out-of-home media. You can advertise at bus stops, in malls, on diner placemats, and of course my favorite, on receptacles. The price for this media can range anywhere from $50 to $500 per month depending on which you choose and where they are located.

If you are a smaller company with a small budget for advertising, alternative out-of-home media, as opposed to the traditional highway billboard, will be most effective for you. You will not be able to take the shotgun approach and advertise everywhere. You will have to be more like a sniper and target your customers (not literally, of course) using the information you’ve gathered when analyzing your customers.

Place

Where you advertise will be dictated by how you analyzed your target customer. Thus it is vitally important to truly understand your customer otherwise you could develop a fantastic message that falls on deaf ears. If your target customers are college students, you should place your message around bookstores, coffee shops, bars, and late night eateries. If your target customers are professionals, then you should place your ads on mass transit, highways into town, bus stops, and lunch-time eateries. If your target customers are stay-at-home moms, you should place your ads in malls, shopping centers, and grocery stores. Take note of your best customers and you’ll know exactly where to place your ads.

Product

Your product will most likely have many features. Depending on where you are advertising and which segments of your customer base will see your message, you will want to showcase different features of your product or service. If your message is in an upscale part of town, you will want to focus on your service and how you are customer-oriented. If you are placing your message in a lower-scale section of town, then you’ll want to focus on value and your guarantee.

Promotion

In promoting or advertising your product or service, you can choose many avenues. The most common form that is most prominent is, of course, the television commercial. However, internet advertising has become extremely popular since most people now have access to it.

While both have the advantage of wide reach, television advertising is very expensive and internet ads can get lost in the thousands of ads that are there. The best scenario is a complete marketing campaign that includes out-of-home media. Why? Because out-of-home media can help to reinforce your existing message and you can also talk to consumers when they are out trying to make their purchase decision. With a properly placed message, you can directly influence that decision. You can place your ad near the place of business of your largest competitor. You can also place your ad near a synergistic business (i.e. if you are a tailor, you could place an ad near a fabric store). Out-of-home media provides much latitude to what you want to say to whom and when.

And do not limit yourself to thinking that out-of-home media, and more specifically outdoor media, is only billboards. There are a myriad of alternative outdoor mediums that target pedestrian traffic. Through such media, you can have a more robust outdoor ad because pedestrian foot traffic is slow and unlike a moving vehicle on the highway, if a pedestrian wants to read your ad, he or she can simply stop walking and take notice. You can also better target your message to consumers who will be most receptive to it because everyone goes somewhere at sometime. Your job is to learn this information about your customers and place your ad there through ubiquitous advertising tools such as the AshCan.

In summary, following the above steps will aid you in better understanding your business, its strengths and weaknesses and how to sell your strengths to the appropriate consumers at the right place with the right message.

Always consider out-of-home media as you can narrowly target your best potential customers and not spend a fortune doing it.

Remember, think like the big guys and perform with the nimbleness and friendliness of a little guy and you cannot go wrong.

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Source by Anthony Free

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Semantics is a branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of language and it tries to understand what meaning is as an element of language and how it is constructed by language as well as interpreted, obscured and negotiated by speakers and listeners of language. We as speakers of a language have an implicit knowledge about what is meaningful in our language. In our account of what that knowledge is, there are at least twelve technical terms used as aspects of our semantic knowledge: polysemy, homonymy, anomaly; paraphrase; synonymy; semantic feature; antonymy; contradiction; ambiguity; adjacency pairs; entailment and presupposition although it is not possible to expect that we can clearly define all the words we know or use, but the obvious thing is that we can make our thoughts and feelings and intentions known to other speakers of the language and can understand what others say.

This ability requires possession of a vocabulary and for us as speakers to know how to pronounce every item in this vocabulary and how to recognize its pronunciation by other speakers. We know how to use the production vocabulary in meaningful sentences and to understand the sentences produced by others. And of course we know meanings-how to choose the items that express what we want to express and how to find the meanings in what other people say.

Polysemy

We can know that a word is polysemous when it has two or more related meanings. In this case the word takes one form but can be used to mean two different things. In the case of polysemy, these two meanings must be related in some way, and not be two completely unrelated meanings of the word, e.g.: bright (shining) and bright (intelligent). mouse (animal) and mouse (computer hardware).

Homophony

Homophony is similar to polysemy in that it refers to a single form of word with two meanings, however a word is a homophone when the two meanings are entirely unrelated, for example:

Bat (flying mammal) and bat (sports equipment).

Pen (writing instrument) and pen (small cage).

Anomaly

We know, in a general way, whether something is or is not meaningful in our language and we can tell which of the following are meaningful in English.

3a Grace wrote a letter. 3b Henry smiled. 3c The grass laughed. 3d a Wall Harry painted.

We can see that 3a and 3b are meaningful to speakers of English, while 3c and 3d are anomalous (examples of anomaly), they are generally accepted to be correct while sentence 3c appears to be meaningful and it might attain meaning in some children’s story or the like, while 3d is merely a sequence of words.

Paraphrases

The following first and second pair sentences have essentially the same meaning and when they do not such as in the following sentences:

4a Agnes arrived before Ruth. 4b Ruth arrived before Agnes.

4c Agnes came home after Ruth. 4d Ruth came home later than Agnes.

Sentences that make equivalent statements about the same entities, like 4a and 4c, or 4b and 4d, are paraphrases (of each other).

Synonymy

We generally agree when two words have essentially the same meaning-in a given context. In each sentence below one word is underlined. Following the sentence is a group of words, one of which can replace the underlined word without changing the meaning of the sentence.

5a Where did you purchase these tools?

use buy release modify take

5b At the end of the street we saw two enormous statues,

pink smooth nice huge original

Words that have the same sense in a given context are synonyms-they are instances of synonymy and are synonymous with each other.

Contradictary

We recognize when the meaning of one sentence contradicts another sentence. The sentences below are all about the same person, but two of them are related in such a way that if one is true the other must be false.

6a Edgar is married. 6b Edgar is fairly rich.

6c Edgar is no longer young. 6d Edgar is a bachelor.

Sentences that make opposite statements about the same subject are contradictory.

Antonymy

We generally agree when two words have opposite meanings in a given context. We are able to choose from the group of words following 7a and 7b the word which is contrary to the underlined word in each sentence.

7a Betty cut a thick slice of cake. 7b The train departs at 12:25.

bright new soft thin wet arrives leaves waits swerves

We see two words that make opposite statements about the same subject are antonyms; they are antonymous, instances of antonymy.

Semantic Features

We know that synonyms and antonyms have to have some common elements of meaning in order to be respectively the same or different but words can have some elements of meaning without being synonymous or antonymous for example:

8a street lane road path house avenue 8b buy take use steal acquire inherit

The common element of meaning, shared by all but one word in 8a and by all but one item in 8b, is a semantic feature. We should all agree that in each of the groups of words above, 8a and 8b, all but one of the words have something in common and we know which is the word that doesn’t belong.

Ambiguity

When some sentences have double meanings, they can be interpreted in two ways. We are aware of this fact that there should be two-way interpretations, like the following.

9a Marjorie doesn’t care for her parakeet. ((doesn’t like it; doesn’t take care of it)

9b Marjorie took the sick parakeet to a small animal hospital. (small hospital for animals; hospital for small animals)

One of the aspects of how meaning works in language is ambiguity. A sentence is ambiguous when it has two or more possible meanings, but how does ambiguity arise in language? A sentence can be ambiguous for either of the following reasons:

Lexical Ambiguity: A sentence is lexically ambiguous when it can have two or more possible meanings due to polysemous (words that have two or more related meanings) or homophonous (a single word which has two or more different meanings) words.

Example of lexically ambiguous sentence: Prostitutes appeal to the Pope. This sentence is ambiguous because the word ‘appeal’ is polysemous and can mean ‘ask for help’ or ‘are attractive to’.

Structural Ambiguity: A sentence is structurally ambiguous if it can have two or more possible meanings due to the words it contains being able to be combined in different ways which create different meanings.

Example of structurally ambiguous sentence: Enraged cow injures farmer with axe. In this sentence the ambiguity arises from the fact that the ‘with axe’ can either refer to the farmer, or to the act of injuring being carried out (by the cow) ‘with axe’.

Adjacency pair

When a question and an answer, or any two utterances, can go together in a conversation and the second is obviously related to the first, they constitute an adjacency pair.

10a When did you last write an article?

Ten minutes ago. Last Tuesday. Very nice. Around noon. I think it was on the first of June.

10b There’s a new film at Studio 21 tonight.

So I’ve heard. What’s it called? When did it open? So do I. Are you sure it’s a comedy?

The ability to cope with adjacency pairs is considered as part of any speaker’s implicit knowledge.

Entailment

We are aware that two statements may be related in such a way that if one is true, the other must also be true as in the following examples of entailment.

11a There are apples in the fridge.

11b There are fruit in the frigde.

11c The ladder is too short to reach the roof.

11d The ladder isn’t long enough to reach the roof.

We assume that 11a and 11b are about the same garden, the truth of 11a entails the truth of 11b, that is, if 11a is true, 11 b must also be true. Likewise, assuming the same ladder and roof, the truth of 11c entails the truth of 11d.

There are two kinds of entailment: mutual entailment and asymmetrical entailment. In mutual entailment, each sentence must be true for the other to be true, e.g.: John is married to Rachel’ and ‘Rachel is John’s wife’, ‘Chris is a man’ and ‘Chris is human’, while in asymmetrical entailment, only one of the sentences must be true for the other to be true, but that sentence may be true without the other sentence necessarily having to be true, for example: ‘Rachel is John’s wife’ entails ‘John is married’ (but John is married does not entail Rachel being his wife), ‘Rachel has two brothers’ entails ‘Rachel is not an only child’ (but Rachel not being an only child does not entail Rachel having two brothers).

Presupposition

We know that the message conveyed in one sentence may presuppose other pieces of knowledge. For instance, if 12a is accepted as true, 12b-12e must also be accepted as true.

12a Evan usually drives his Toyota to work.

12b There is a person named Evan.

12c Evan works.

12d There is a Toyota that belongs to Evan.

12e Evan knows how to drive a car.

The meaning of sentence 12a presupposes what is expressed in 12b, c, d and e. The latter are presuppositions of 12a. Note that a presupposition does not establish the truth of anything. Sentence 12a is meaningful as it is, but it is true only if there is a person named Evan, who works and owns a Toyota, etc. The sentence is presented as if there is a person named Evan.

In summary, the above 12 terms are introduced to show the latent knowledge that we have about our language, the general implicit knowledge that we have about meaning in our language. We can deal with them successfully, we differ considerably, and circumstances differ considerably, depending on the way we individuals behave in a given situation or context, it does not necessarily indicate what our deeper competence is, there are personality factors involves such as willingness to cooperate, memory, attention, recent experience which much influences our performance.

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Source by Saut Halomoan

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Some old cars are just old. Some are donated to charity, if charity will take them. Others are given up during community clean-ups and some make the journey to the wrecking yard. But a few actually increase in value. There are old cars bringing higher prices than they did when new.

When you search the net or talk to experienced collectors you will come across labels such as antique cars, vintage cars, classic cars, muscle cars, pony cars. And every one of these has been sought after by a collector.

You will see ads in prestigious magazines such as Forbes identifying the top ten classic cars and the top ten vintage cars. On Sunday afternoon, it is not uncommon to see a club out for a rally. And there is a club for every car category.

But what constitutes an antique, a vintage or a classic? Some definitions have been established but there are also times when the definition is the product of the definer. And often times the definitions don’t agree.

For example, the Antique Automobile Club of America defines an antique car as any car over 25 years old. However, outside the club it is defined as those cars manufactured from the start of development through 1916.

Vintage cars are designated as those produced between 1916 and 1924.

Classic cars are a confusing mix. There are almost as many definitions as there are definers. Some categorize a classic car as one produced from 1925 until today. For certain, to become a classic car, it has to be appreciated and sought after by a significant number of people.

Even auto thieves have their say as to what is and isn’t classic. World wide, auto thieves exhibit a definite preference for Japanese manufactured automobiles. In a ‘Top Ten’ list, auto thieves were found to favor the Honda Civic, Toyota Century, Honda Accord, Accura Integra, the Toyota pickup, and the Nissan Sentra. The other four cars on the list were American. No European cars were listed. However, the content was probably influenced by the location of the list maker and the home base of the thieves.

But European makes, notably the 1954 Mercedes 300SL, the 1966 Porsche 911, the 1961 Jaguar XKE, and the Volvo 1800 E are on a top ten list of vintage cars.

The demand for vintage car advertisements also furnishes a clue as to what is and isn’t popular.

The Classic Car Club of America defines a Classic as: “a fine or distinctive automobile, either American or foreign built, produced between 1925 and 1948.” Classics should be cars that were built in small quantities and high priced when new. The club maintains a list of classics.

The club also readily admits that their definition may not be followed. A look at Forbes top ten will corroborate that statement.

And then the government enters the arena as most states in the United States have laws for defining antiques, vintage, and classics for the purpose of vehicle registration.

So what really appears to determine a classic is popularity. If enough people fall in love with a junkyard relic and desire to own and restore it, that auto will become a classic.

However, there is one certainty. Whether antiques, vintage, or classic, these cars will appreciate in value as years pass.

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Source by Brenda Williams